Predicting Early Academic Achievement: The Role of Teacher Ratings, Cognitive and Motor Skills, and Gender
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.59519/mper7202Keywords:
Academic achievement, Teacher ratings, Cognitive abilities, Elementary educationAbstract
Early elementary education represents a critical period for the development of foundational reading and mathematics skills. This study investigated the relative contributions of teacher ratings, cognitive abilities, fine motor skills, and gender to academic achievement in a sample of 129 primary school students (Grades 2–5; M age = 9.1 years, SD = 1.2; 68 girls). Reading and mathematics performance were assessed using decoding and arithmetic tasks, respectively. Predictor variables included teacher ratings of academic performance, processing speed, visual-spatial working memory, fine motor speed, visuomotor integration, and gender. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that teacher ratings were the strongest predictors of reading achievement but were less predictive of mathematics outcomes. Processing speed significantly predicted both reading and mathematics performance. Working memory showed no significant effect on mathematics and a negative association with reading after motor skills were included in the model, suggesting a suppression effect. Fine motor skills emerged as unique contributors to reading, but not mathematics, highlighting their specific relevance for literacy acquisition. Gender differences were observed only in mathematics, where boys outperformed girls; no significant gender effect was found for reading. These findings highlight the importance of integrating teacher evaluations with cognitive and motor assessments to gain a better understanding of early academic achievement.
References
Adams, J. W., & Hitch, G. J. (1998). Children’s mental arithmetic and working memory. In C. Donlan (Ed.), The development of mathematical skills (pp. 153–173). East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press Ltd.
Baddeley, A. (1992). Working Memory: The Interface between Memory and Cognition. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 4(3), 281-288. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.1992.4.3.281
Begeny, J. C., Eckert, T. L., Montarello, S. A., & Storie, M. S. (2008). Teachers' perceptions of students' reading abilities: An examination of the relationship between teachers' judgments and students' performance across a continuum of rating methods. School Psychology Quarterly, 23(1), 43-55. https://doi.org/10.1037/1045-3830.23.1.43
Below, J. L., H., S. C., Y., F. J., & and Sorrell, C. A. (2010). Gender Differences in Early Literacy: Analysis of Kindergarten through Fifth-Grade Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills Probes. School Psychology Review, 39(2), 240-257. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2010.12087776
Benner, G. J., Nelson, J. R., Allor, J. H., Mooney, P., & Tao, D. (2007). Academic Processing Speed Mediates the Influence of Both Externalizing Behavior and Language Skills on the Academic Skills of Students With Emotional Disturbance. Journal of Behavioral Education, 17(1), 63-78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-007-9057-7
Bodovski, K., & Farkas, G. (2007). Mathematics Growth in Early Elementary School: The Roles of Beginning Knowledge, Student Engagement, and Instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 108(2), 115-130. https://doi.org/10.1086/525550
Brozo, W. G., Sulkunen, S., Shiel, G., Garbe, C., Pandian, A., & Valtin, R. (2014). Reading, Gender, and Engagement. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 57(7), 584-593. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.291
Brydges, C. R., Landes, J. K., Reid, C., Campbell, C., French, N., & Anderson, M. (2018). Cognitive Outcomes in Children and Adolescents Born Very Preterm: A Meta‐analysis. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 60(5), 452-468. https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.13685
Buha, N., Banković, S., & Gligorović, M. (2023). The relationship between reading skills and fine motor abilities in younger school-age children. Specijalna edukacija i rehabilitacija, 22(2), 149-165.
Bukva, A., & and Memisevic, H. (2025). The relationship between executive functions and mathematics achievements in early-grade elementary students. Child Neuropsychology, 31(4), 635-648. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2024.2421222
Bukva, A., & Memisevic, H. (2024). Development of fine motor skills in elementary school students: Gender and age effects. Multidisciplinarni Pristupi u Edukaciji i Rehabilitaciji, 6(8), 14-22. https://doi.org/10.59519/mper6202
Carr, M., Steiner, H. H., Kyser, B., & Biddlecomb, B. (2008). A comparison of predictors of early emerging gender differences in mathematics competency. Learning and Individual Differences, 18(1), 61-75. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2007.04.005
Catts, H. W., Gillispie, M., Leonard, L. B., Kail, R. V., & Miller, C. A. (2002). The Role of Speed of Processing, Rapid Naming, and Phonological Awareness in Reading Achievement. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(6), 510-525. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194020350060301
Christopher, M. E., Miyake, A., Keenan, J. M., Pennington, B. F., DeFries, J. C., Wadsworth, S. J., Willcutt, E. G., & Olson, R. K. (2012). Predicting Word Reading and Comprehension With Executive Function and Speed Measures Across Development: A Latent Variable Analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 141(3), 470-488. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027375
Dinehart, L., & and Manfra, L. (2013). Associations Between Low-Income Children's Fine Motor Skills in Preschool and Academic Performance in Second Grade. Early Education and Development, 24(2), 138-161. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2011.636729
Eckert, T. L., Dunn, E. K., Codding, R. S., Begeny, J. C., & Kleinmann, A. E. (2006). Assessment of mathematics and reading performance: An examination of the correspondence between direct assessment of student performance and teacher report. Psychology in the Schools, 43(3), 247-265. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20147
Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., & Linn, M. C. (2010). Cross-national patterns of gender differences in mathematics: A meta-analysis [doi:10.1037/a0018053]. American Psychological Association.
Feinberg, A. B., & and Shapiro, E. S. (2009). Teacher Accuracy: An Examination of Teacher-Based Judgments of Students' Reading With Differing Achievement Levels. The Journal of Educational Research, 102(6), 453-462. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.102.6.453-462
Flores, P., Coelho, E., Mourão-Carvalhal, M. I., & Forte, P. (2023). Association between motor and math skills in preschool children with typical development: Systematic review [Review]. Frontiers in Psychology, Volume 14 - 2023. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1105391
Formoso, J., Injoque-Ricle, I., Barreyro, J.-P., Calero, A., Jacubovich, S., & Burín, D. I. (2018). Mathematical cognition, working memory, and processing speed in children. Cognition, Brain, Behavior: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 22(2), 59-84. https://doi.org/10.24193/cbb.2018.22.05
Gashaj, V., & Trninic, D. (2023). Adding up fine motor skills: Developmental relations between manual dexterity and numerical abilities. Acta Psychologica, 241, 104087. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.104087
Georgiou, G. K., Papadopoulos, T. C., Fella, A., & Parrila, R. (2012). Rapid naming speed components and reading development in a consistent orthography. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 112(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2011.11.006
Gerst, E. H., T., C. P., T., M. K., Jeremy, M., Hanako, Y., P., W. S., & and Gibbs, M. C. (2021). The Structure of Processing Speed in Children and Its Impact on Reading. Journal of Cognition and Development, 22(1), 84-107. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2020.1862121
Grissmer, D., Grimm, K. J., Aiyer, S. M., Murrah, W. M., & Steele, J. S. (2010). Fine motor skills and early comprehension of the world: Two new school readiness indicators. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1008-1017. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020104
Helwig, R., Lisbeth, A., & and Tindal, G. (2001). Influence of Elementary Student Gender on Teachers' Perceptions of Mathematics Achievement. The Journal of Educational Research, 95(2), 93-102. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670109596577
Hyde, J. S., Fennema, E., & Lamon, S. J. (1990). Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 139-155. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.139
Hyde, J. S., Lindberg, S. M., Linn, M. C., Ellis, A. B., & Williams, C. C. (2008). Gender Similarities Characterize Math Performance. Science, 321(5888), 494-495. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1160364
IBM. (2020). IBM SPSS statistics for windows, version 27.0. IBM corp.
Ibralić, I., Kuduzović, A., & Hadžić, S. (2025). Home Environment Matters: Predicting TIMSS Math Success in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Multidisciplinarni Pristupi u Edukaciji i Rehabilitaciji, 7(9), 38-49. https://doi.org/10.59519/mper7104
Jones, D., Innerd, A., Giles, E. L., & Azevedo, L. B. (2021). The Association Between Physical Activity, Motor Skills and School Readiness in 4–5-Year-Old Children in the Northeast of England. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(22), 11931. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182211931
Lambert, K., & Spinath, B. (2018). Conservation Abilities, Visuospatial Skills, and Numerosity Processing Speed: Association With Math Achievement and Math Difficulties in Elementary School Children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 51(3), 223-235. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219417690354
Lobier, M., Dubois, M., & Valdois, S. (2013). The Role of Visual Processing Speed in Reading Speed Development. PLOS ONE, 8(4), e58097. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0058097
Logan, S., & Johnston, R. (2009). Gender differences in reading ability and attitudes: examining where these differences lie. Journal of Research in Reading, 32(2), 199-214. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2008.01389.x
Luo, Z., Jose, P. E., Huntsinger, C. S., & Pigott, T. D. (2007). Fine motor skills and mathematics achievement in East Asian American and European American kindergartners and first graders. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 25(4), 595-614. https://doi.org/10.1348/026151007X185329
Memisevic, H., Dedic, A., Biscevic, I., Hadzic, S., Pasalic, A., & Malec, D. (2022). Identifying predictors of reading speed and reading comprehension in Bosnian. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 11(3), 297-306. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2020.1815023
Memisevic, H., Malec, D., Biscevic, I., & Pasalic, A. (2019). Predictors of reading fluency in second and third grade students: Results from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Studia Psychologica, 61(3), 175-188. https://doi.org/10.21909/sp.2019.03.781
Memisevic, H., Dedic, A., & Malec, D. (2023). The Relative Strengths of Relationships Between Fine Motor Skills, Working Memory, Processing Speed and Fluid Intelligence in Early Elementary School Children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 130(4), 1386-1399. https://doi.org/10.1177/00315125231181297
Milanowski, A. (2004). The relationship between teacher performance evaluation scores and student achievement: Evidence from Cincinnati. Peabody Journal of Education 79(4), 33-53.
Missall, K. N., K., H. M., & and Hosp, J. L. (2019). Reading Proficiency in Elementary: Considering Statewide Testing, Teacher Ratings and Rankings, and Reading CurriculumBased Measurement. School Psychology Review, 48(3), 267-275. https://doi.org/10.17105/SPR-2017-0152.V48-3
Mueller, S. T., & Piper, B. J. (2014). The Psychology Experiment Building Language (PEBL) and PEBL Test Battery. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 222, 250-259. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneumeth.2013.10.024
Nakajima, N., Jung, H., Pradhan, M., Hasan, A., Kinnell, A., & Brinkman, S. (2020). Gender gaps in cognitive and social-emotional skills in early primary grades: Evidence from rural Indonesia. Developmental Science, 23(5), e12931. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12931
Paz-Baruch, N., M., L., J., A.-P., & and Leikin, R. (2014). Speed of information processing in generally gifted and excelling-in-mathematics adolescents. High Ability Studies, 25(2), 143-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/13598139.2014.971102
Peng, P., Wang, C., & Namkung, J. (2018). Understanding the Cognition Related to Mathematics Difficulties: A Meta-Analysis on the Cognitive Deficit Profiles and the Bottleneck Theory. Review of Educational Research, 88(3), 434-476. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654317753350
Pitchford, N. J., Papini, C., Outhwaite, L. A., & Gulliford, A. (2016). Fine Motor Skills Predict Maths Ability Better than They Predict Reading Ability in the Early Primary School Years [Original Research]. Frontiers in Psychology, Volume 7 - 2016. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00783
Rabiner, D. L., Godwin, J., & Dodge, K. A. (2016). Predicting academic achievement and attainment: The contribution of early academic skills, attention difficulties, and social competence. School Psychology Review, 45(2), 250-267. https://doi.org/10.17105/SPR45-2.250-267
Ready, D. D., & Wright, D. L. (2011). Accuracy and Inaccuracy in Teachers’ Perceptions of Young Children’s Cognitive Abilities:The Role of Child Background and Classroom Context. American Educational Research Journal, 48(2), 335-360. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831210374874
Roivainen, E. (2011). Gender differences in processing speed: A review of recent research. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(2), 145-149. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.11.021
Rosselli, M., Alfredo, A., Esmeralda, M., & and Inozemtseva, O. (2009). Gender Differences and Cognitive Correlates of Mathematical Skills in School-Aged Children. Child Neuropsychology, 15(3), 216-231. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297040802195205
Shah, R., Brown, G., Keegan, P., Burakevych, N., Harding, J. E., McKinlay, C. J., & Group, f. t. C. S. (2020). Teacher rating versus measured academic achievement: Implications for paediatric research. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 56(7), 1090-1096. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/jpc.14824
Slattery, E. J., Ryan, P., Fortune, D. G., & McAvinue, L. P. (2021). Contributions of working memory and sustained attention to children’s reading achievement: A commonality analysis approach. Cognitive Development, 58, 101028. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101028
Snow, C. E., & Matthews, T. J. (2016). Reading and Language in the Early Grades. The Future of Children, 26(2), 57-74. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2016.0012
Suggate, S., Pufke, E., & Stoeger, H. (2019). Children’s fine motor skills in kindergarten predict reading in grade 1. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 47, 248-258. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.12.015
Swanson, H. L., & Beebe-Frankenberger, M. (2004). The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(3), 471-491. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471
ten Braak, D., Lenes, R., Purpura, D. J., Schmitt, S. A., & Størksen, I. (2022). Why do early mathematics skills predict later mathematics and reading achievement? The role of executive function. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 214, 105306. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105306
Van der Elst, W., Dekker, S., Hurks, P., & Jolles, J. (2012). The letter digit substitution test: demographic influences and regression-based normative data for school-aged children. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(4), 433-439. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acs045
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Tamara Grgić, Haris Memišević (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
